Incident: Hardware Reliability Issues in Large Data Centers Causing Outages

Published Date: 2022-02-08

Postmortem Analysis
Timeline 1. The software failure incident mentioned in the article happened over the last year, as indicated by the statement "Companies like Amazon, Facebook, Twitter, and many other sites have experienced surprising outages over the last year" [Article 123937]. 2. Published on 2022-02-08 08:00:00+00:00. Therefore, the software failure incident likely occurred between February 2021 and February 2022.
System 1. Computer chips inside servers in large data centers [123937] 2. Processor cores in modern processor chips [123937] 3. Intel's Xeon processors [123937]
Responsible Organization 1. Computer hardware manufacturers such as AMD were responsible for causing the software failure incident by producing less reliable computer memory chips [123937]. 2. Google and Facebook researchers identified that smaller transistors nearing physical limits and inadequate testing were contributing factors to the hardware errors experienced in their data centers [123937]. 3. Intel acknowledged design changes in several generations of its Xeon processors that led to a larger number of errors that couldn't be corrected, impacting its customers [123937].
Impacted Organization 1. Companies like Amazon, Facebook, Twitter, and many other sites [Article 123937] 2. Google [Article 123937] 3. Meta (formerly known as Facebook) [Article 123937] 4. Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) [Article 123937] 5. Esperanto Technologies [Article 123937] 6. Intel [Article 123937] 7. Lenovo [Article 123937]
Software Causes unknown
Non-software Causes 1. Rare, almost undetectable flaws in computer chips inside servers powering large data centers [123937]. 2. Manufacturing defects in computer hardware made by various companies leading to silent errors [123937]. 3. Smaller transistors nearing physical limits and inadequate testing contributing to errors in Google's data centers [123937]. 4. Increasing complexity in processor design, smaller transistors, three-dimensional chips, and new designs contributing to errors in processor cores [123937]. 5. Design changes in several generations of Intel's Xeon processors leading to a larger number of uncorrectable errors [123937].
Impacts 1. The software failure incident led to surprising outages experienced by companies like Amazon, Facebook, Twitter, and many other sites over the last year, caused by various factors such as programming mistakes and congestion on the networks [123937]. 2. Researchers found that computer hardware failures, particularly related to chip errors, were becoming more prevalent, leading to concerns about the reliability and predictability of computer chips used in large data centers [123937]. 3. The problem of hardware errors in computer chips was challenging to diagnose and correct, with errors being difficult to reproduce and occurring intermittently, impacting the performance and reliability of systems based on millions of processor cores [123937]. 4. Intel's customers, including Lenovo, were affected by undetected errors created by systems using Intel's Xeon processors, leading to design changes and the need for new methods to detect and correct hardware errors [123937].
Preventions 1. Implementing more rigorous testing procedures during the manufacturing process to detect and correct hardware errors before deployment [123937]. 2. Developing new methods for detecting and correcting hardware errors in data centers, such as creating standard, open-source software for data center operators [123937]. 3. Proactively monitoring the health of underlying chips in data centers using specialized software to identify and address hardware degradation before it leads to failures [123937].
Fixes 1. Developing new methods for detecting and correcting hardware errors in collaboration with companies like Intel [Article 123937]. 2. Creating standard, open-source software for data center operators to find and correct hardware errors that built-in circuits in chips are not detecting [Article 123937]. 3. Proactively monitoring hardware errors with specialized software to remove hardware when it begins to degrade [Article 123937].
References 1. Researchers at Facebook and Google [Article 123937] 2. University of Toronto computer scientists [Article 123937] 3. Chip maker Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) [Article 123937] 4. David Ditzel, chairman and founder of Esperanto Technologies [Article 123937] 5. Bryan Jorgensen, vice president of Intel’s data platforms group [Article 123937] 6. Lenovo [Article 123937] 7. TidalScale, a company in Los Gatos, Calif. [Article 123937]

Software Taxonomy of Faults

Category Option Rationale
Recurring one_organization, multiple_organization (a) The software failure incident having happened again at one_organization: - The article mentions that Facebook, now known as Meta, experienced surprising outages over the last year due to various causes, including programming mistakes and congestion on the networks [123937]. - Facebook researchers published a study describing computer hardware failures, indicating that the problem was not in the software but in the computer hardware made by various companies [123937]. (b) The software failure incident having happened again at multiple_organization: - The article highlights that companies like Amazon, Facebook, Twitter, and many other sites have experienced surprising outages over the last year, indicating that similar incidents have occurred across multiple organizations [123937].
Phase (Design/Operation) design, operation (a) The software failure incident related to the design phase is highlighted in the articles. Researchers at both Facebook and Google published studies describing computer hardware failures whose causes were not easy to identify. They argued that the problem was not in the software but in the computer hardware made by various companies [123937]. The Google researchers found that the errors in their data centers were likely a combination of factors such as smaller transistors nearing physical limits and inadequate testing, indicating issues introduced during the design phase [123937]. (b) The software failure incident related to the operation phase is also mentioned in the articles. Lenovo, a major PC maker, informed its customers about design changes in several generations of Intel's Xeon processors that might generate a larger number of errors that couldn't be corrected than earlier microprocessors. This issue was related to the operation of the systems using these processors [123937]. Intel acknowledged the problem and made design changes to address it, indicating operational challenges leading to software failures [123937].
Boundary (Internal/External) within_system (a) within_system: The software failure incident discussed in the articles is primarily related to hardware issues within the system. Researchers at companies like Facebook and Google have published studies describing computer hardware failures that are difficult to identify [123937]. These hardware failures, such as smaller transistors nearing physical limits and inadequate testing, have led to errors in the vast data centers composed of computer systems based on millions of processor "cores" [123937]. The problem is exacerbated by factors like increasing complexity in processor design, smaller transistors, three-dimensional chips, and new designs that create errors only in certain cases [123937]. (b) outside_system: The articles do not provide information about software failure incidents caused by contributing factors originating from outside the system.
Nature (Human/Non-human) non-human_actions, human_actions (a) The software failure incident occurring due to non-human actions: The articles discuss how computer hardware flaws, such as rare defects in computer chips, have led to software failures in large data centers. These flaws are described as almost undetectable and are not caused by human actions but rather by inherent issues in the hardware itself. Researchers have found that these hardware errors, known as silent errors, are becoming more prevalent as computer systems become more complex and stress the hardware in unexpected ways [123937]. (b) The software failure incident occurring due to human actions: The articles mention that some software failures in data centers were attributed to inadequate testing and the nearing physical limits of smaller transistors in processor cores, which were introduced by human actions during the design and testing phases. Additionally, the complexity in processor design, including three-dimensional chips and new designs, created errors that only occurred under certain conditions, which could be attributed to human decisions during the design process [123937].
Dimension (Hardware/Software) hardware (a) The software failure incident occurring due to hardware: The articles discuss software failure incidents that are attributed to hardware issues. Researchers at both Facebook and Google have published studies describing computer hardware failures that have been challenging to identify [123937]. These failures are believed to stem from manufacturing defects in computer hardware, leading to silent errors that are difficult to catch. Additionally, the articles mention that errors in Google's data centers were likely caused by factors such as smaller transistors nearing physical limits and inadequate testing [123937]. Intel executives acknowledged the research papers and mentioned working with companies like Google and Facebook to develop new methods for detecting and correcting hardware errors [123937]. (b) The software failure incident occurring due to software: The articles do not specifically mention any software failure incidents that originated solely from software-related issues. The focus of the articles is primarily on hardware-related problems causing software failures in data centers and the challenges associated with detecting and correcting these hardware errors.
Objective (Malicious/Non-malicious) non-malicious (a) The articles do not mention any software failure incident related to malicious intent to harm the system. (b) The articles discuss software failure incidents related to non-malicious factors such as hardware errors, defects, and failures. These incidents are attributed to issues with computer hardware, specifically with computer chips becoming less reliable and more prone to errors, causing disruptions in systems that perform billions of calculations each second [Article 123937]. The failures are described as sporadic and occurring under certain conditions, with some processors passing manufacturers' tests but exhibiting failures in the field [Article 123937]. Additionally, the articles mention that errors were difficult to diagnose, and efforts were made to detect and correct hardware errors that built-in circuits in chips were not detecting [Article 123937].
Intent (Poor/Accidental Decisions) unknown The articles do not specifically mention any software failure incident related to poor decisions or accidental decisions. Therefore, the intent of the software failure incident in this context is unknown.
Capability (Incompetence/Accidental) accidental (a) The articles do not specifically mention any software failure incidents occurring due to development incompetence. (b) The articles discuss software failure incidents related to hardware errors and defects rather than accidental factors introduced during development. The failures are attributed to issues such as smaller transistors nearing physical limits, inadequate testing, increasing complexity in processor design, and new designs that create errors only in certain cases [123937].
Duration unknown The articles do not specifically mention any software failure incident being permanent or temporary. Therefore, the duration of the software failure incident in relation to being permanent or temporary is unknown.
Behaviour crash, value, other (a) crash: The articles mention incidents where errors in computer hardware, particularly in processor cores, led to sporadic inaccuracies and intermittent calculation errors, causing the systems to shut down unexpectedly [123937]. (b) omission: There is no specific mention of software failures due to omission in the provided articles. (c) timing: The articles do not discuss software failures related to timing issues. (d) value: The articles highlight instances where processors produced inaccurate results under certain conditions, indicating failures in performing the intended functions correctly [123937]. (e) byzantine: The articles do not describe software failures related to byzantine behavior. (f) other: The other behavior described in the articles includes errors that were challenging to diagnose, intermittent, difficult to reproduce, and caused by a combination of factors such as smaller transistors nearing physical limits and inadequate testing [123937].

IoT System Layer

Layer Option Rationale
Perception None None
Communication None None
Application None None

Other Details

Category Option Rationale
Consequence no_consequence, theoretical_consequence The consequence of the software failure incident discussed in the articles is primarily related to potential consequences and challenges faced by companies and researchers due to hardware errors in computer chips. The articles do not mention any real observed consequences such as death, harm, basic needs impact, property loss, or delays caused by the software failure incident. Instead, the focus is on the challenges of detecting and correcting hardware errors in computer chips, the impact on data centers, and the efforts to develop new methods for addressing these issues. The articles discuss the challenges faced by companies like Google and Facebook due to hardware errors in computer chips, which have led to unexpected errors and outages in data centers [Article 123937]. Researchers have highlighted concerns about the reliability and predictability of computer chips, with potential consequences including silent errors, system disruptions, and shorter lifespans of computer memories or processors. The articles also mention efforts by companies like Intel to develop new methods for detecting and correcting hardware errors in data centers. Therefore, the consequence of the software failure incident discussed in the articles falls under the category of theoretical consequences and challenges related to hardware errors in computer chips, rather than real observed consequences impacting individuals or non-human entities.
Domain information The software failure incident discussed in the articles is related to the information industry. The incident involved large data centers of companies like Amazon, Facebook (now Meta), Twitter, and Google experiencing outages due to underlying hardware issues in computer chips [123937]. These data centers are crucial for the production and distribution of information, which aligns with the information industry. The failures were attributed to rare defects in computer hardware, causing errors that were challenging to diagnose and correct, ultimately leading to system disruptions [123937].

Sources

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