Published Date: 2016-08-10
| Postmortem Analysis | |
|---|---|
| Timeline | 1. The software failure incident involving Volkswagen's keyless entry system vulnerability affecting practically every car sold since 1995 happened in 2016 [47051]. 2. The software failure incident involving vulnerabilities in Volkswagen's keyless entry system that affected nearly 100 million cars sold over the past two decades occurred in 2016 [46973]. |
| System | 1. Keyless entry system of Volkswagen vehicles sold since 1995 [47051, 70040, 46973] 2. HiTag2 cryptographic scheme used in millions of vehicles [46973] |
| Responsible Organization | 1. Researchers at the University of Birmingham and a German engineering firm were responsible for causing the software failure incident by discovering vulnerabilities in Volkswagen's keyless entry systems [47051, 70040, 46973]. |
| Impacted Organization | 1. Volkswagen [47051, 70040, 46973] 2. Audi [46973] 3. SĖkoda [46973] 4. Alfa Romeo [47051] 5. Fiat [47051] 6. Ford [47051] 7. Mitsubishi [47051] 8. Nissan [47051] 9. Opel [46973] 10. Peugeot [46973] |
| Software Causes | 1. Vulnerabilities in the keyless entry systems of Volkswagen vehicles, affecting practically every car sold by Volkswagen since 1995, allowing for wireless unlocking of doors [46973, 47051]. 2. Security flaws in the cryptographic schemes used in key fobs, such as HiTag2, allowing for interception of codes and cloning of key fobs to gain access to vehicles [46973]. |
| Non-software Causes | 1. Lack of adequate security measures in the design of keyless entry systems for vehicles [47051, 70040] 2. Vulnerabilities in the cryptographic schemes used in key fobs and internal components of vehicles [46973] |
| Impacts | 1. The software failure incident involving Volkswagen's keyless entry system vulnerabilities impacted approximately 100 million Volkswagens, going back to 1995, as well as other automakers like Alfa Romeo, Fiat, Ford, Mitsubishi, and Nissan [47051, 70040, 46973]. 2. The incident allowed resourceful thieves to wirelessly unlock practically every vehicle sold by the Volkswagen group for the last two decades, posing a serious security risk to vehicle owners [46973]. 3. The vulnerabilities exposed in the keyless entry systems of these vehicles could potentially lead to unauthorized access to the inside of the vehicles, enabling thieves to put the car in neutral and roll it onto a flatbed for a quick getaway [47051]. 4. The incident highlighted the lack of adequate security measures in place by car manufacturers, leading to concerns about the safety and security of vehicles equipped with keyless entry systems [70040]. 5. The incident raised questions about the effectiveness of the security systems in modern vehicles and the need for automakers to address security vulnerabilities as a matter of urgency [70040]. 6. The incident also revealed the challenges faced by car manufacturers in responding to increasingly sophisticated car theft methods and the need for continuous improvement in security technologies to stay ahead of criminals [70040]. |
| Preventions | 1. Implementing more secure cryptographic schemes and encryption methods in the keyless entry systems of vehicles to prevent easy interception of signals [46973, 46973]. 2. Regularly updating and upgrading the security systems in vehicles to address vulnerabilities and stay ahead of increasingly sophisticated car thieves [70040]. 3. Providing timely and transparent communication to customers about security flaws and risks associated with keyless entry systems [70040]. 4. Conducting thorough security assessments and testing of software and hardware components in vehicles to identify and address potential vulnerabilities [46973, 46973]. 5. Collaborating with security researchers and experts to proactively identify and address security weaknesses in vehicle systems [47051, 46973]. |
| Fixes | 1. Enhancing the security technology in vehicles to prevent unauthorized access and cloning of key fobs [47051, 70040, 46973]. 2. Upgrading cryptographic schemes used in keyless entry systems to prevent vulnerabilities like the HiTag2 scheme [46973]. 3. Implementing more advanced algorithms for security in vehicles to replace legacy systems like HiTag2 [46973]. 4. Regularly updating and improving software and security features in vehicles to stay ahead of increasingly sophisticated car thieves [70040]. 5. Encouraging car owners with affected vehicles to avoid leaving valuables in their cars and consider using mechanical methods for locking and unlocking doors [46973]. | References | 1. University of Birmingham [47051, 70040, 46973] 2. German engineering firm Kasper & Oswald [46973] 3. Volkswagen [47051, 70040, 46973] 4. BMW [70040] 5. Daily Mail investigation [70040] 6. Tesla [70040] 7. Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders (SMMT) [70040] 8. West Midlands Police [70040] 9. CanTrack Global [70040] |
| Category | Option | Rationale |
|---|---|---|
| Recurring | one_organization, multiple_organization | (a) The software failure incident related to Volkswagen's security vulnerabilities has happened again within the same organization. Researchers from the University of Birmingham and a German engineering firm discovered vulnerabilities in Volkswagen's keyless entry system that could allow thieves to wirelessly unlock practically every vehicle the Volkswagen group has sold since 1995 [46973]. This incident is similar to a previous hack in 2013 where researchers found a vulnerability that allowed them to start the ignition of millions of Volkswagen cars without a key [46973]. (b) The software failure incident related to security vulnerabilities in keyless entry systems has also happened at multiple organizations. The researchers found vulnerabilities not only in Volkswagen vehicles but also in vehicles from other automakers including Alfa Romeo, Citroen, Fiat, Ford, Mitsubishi, Nissan, Opel, and Peugeot [46973]. This indicates a broader issue with the security of keyless entry systems across various car manufacturers. |
| Phase (Design/Operation) | design, operation | (a) The software failure incident related to the design phase: - Researchers at the University of Birmingham and a German engineering firm discovered vulnerabilities in Volkswagen's keyless entry system that allowed for wireless unlocking of vehicles, affecting practically every car Volkswagen has sold since 1995 [46973]. - The vulnerability involved intercepting signals from a victim's key fob using cheap radio hardware and cloning the key to gain access to the vehicle [46973]. - The flaw was found in the cryptographic key value shared among millions of Volkswagen vehicles, allowing thieves to clone the key after intercepting a single button press [46973]. - The attack required radio eavesdropping within about 300 feet of the target vehicle and extracting a shared key value unique to the target vehicle [46973]. (b) The software failure incident related to the operation phase: - Organized gangs were reported to be using cheap devices to hack electronic entry systems of cars, including those from Volkswagen, BMW, and other manufacturers [70040]. - Thieves were able to hack into cars using tools that could override security systems, such as key fob cloning gadgets available for sale on the open market [70040]. - The theft methods involved using relay boxes to extend the signal from a key fob inside the owner's home to unlock and start the car, as well as using programming devices to tell the vehicle's computer to accept a blank key [70040]. - The incidents of car theft through hacking were on the rise, with affordable cars like Ford Fiestas also being targeted, not just upmarket vehicles [70040]. |
| Boundary (Internal/External) | within_system, outside_system | (a) within_system: - The software failure incident related to the vulnerability in Volkswagen's keyless entry system and the ability to clone key fobs was due to contributing factors that originated from within the system itself. Researchers at the University of Birmingham and a German engineering firm discovered flaws in Volkswagen's keyless entry system that allowed for the interception of signals from key fobs and the cloning of keys, affecting millions of vehicles [47051, 70040, 46973]. (b) outside_system: - The software failure incident was also influenced by contributing factors that originated from outside the system. Organized gangs were reported to use cheap devices to hack electronic entry systems and steal cars, indicating external threats to the security of the vehicles [70040]. Additionally, the availability of key programming devices and relay boxes for sale on the open market allowed criminals to exploit vulnerabilities in keyless entry systems, highlighting external factors contributing to the software failure incident [70040]. |
| Nature (Human/Non-human) | non-human_actions, human_actions | (a) The software failure incident occurring due to non-human actions: - The articles report on a software failure incident related to a vulnerability in the keyless entry systems of millions of vehicles, including Volkswagen, Audi, and other automakers. This vulnerability allowed for wireless interception of signals from key fobs, leading to the cloning of the key and unauthorized access to vehicles [47051, 70040, 46973]. - The vulnerability was exploited using radio hardware to intercept signals from key fobs, enabling thieves to unlock vehicles without the need for physical keys. This flaw was present in keyless entry systems used in cars sold since 1995, affecting a significant number of vehicles [47051, 70040, 46973]. (b) The software failure incident occurring due to human actions: - The articles highlight that car makers, including Volkswagen and BMW, were aware of the security flaws in their keyless entry systems but failed to adequately inform customers about the risks. Volkswagen, for example, suppressed warnings about the risk of electronic car theft for two years, and BMW acknowledged that key fob cloning gadgets were available for sale on the open market, posing a challenge for the industry [70040]. - Researchers from the University of Birmingham and other institutions discovered and publicized the vulnerabilities in the keyless entry systems, indicating that car manufacturers were not proactive in addressing these security issues. The delay in disclosing the vulnerabilities and the lack of transparent communication with customers contributed to the software failure incident [46973]. |
| Dimension (Hardware/Software) | hardware, software | (a) The software failure incident occurring due to hardware: - The articles report on a software failure incident related to a hardware vulnerability in Volkswagen vehicles' keyless entry systems. Researchers from the University of Birmingham and a German engineering firm discovered vulnerabilities that allowed thieves to wirelessly unlock practically every vehicle the Volkswagen group has sold since 1995 [46973]. The attack involved intercepting signals from the key fobs using radio hardware and cloning the key to gain access to the vehicles [46973]. This hardware vulnerability posed a significant security risk to millions of vehicles, including those from other automakers like Alfa Romeo, Fiat, Ford, Mitsubishi, and Nissan [47051]. (b) The software failure incident occurring due to software: - The software failure incident in the articles is primarily related to vulnerabilities in the software systems of the keyless entry mechanisms in vehicles. The vulnerabilities allowed for the interception of signals and cloning of key fobs, indicating a flaw in the software implementation of the keyless entry systems [46973]. The incident highlights how software weaknesses can lead to security breaches and compromise the safety and security of vehicles [47051]. |
| Objective (Malicious/Non-malicious) | malicious | (a) The software failure incident described in the articles is malicious in nature. Researchers from the University of Birmingham and a German engineering firm discovered vulnerabilities in the keyless entry systems of millions of vehicles, including those from Volkswagen, Audi, and other automakers. These vulnerabilities allowed resourceful thieves to wirelessly unlock vehicles by intercepting signals from key fobs and cloning them, potentially compromising the security of millions of cars [47051, 70040, 46973]. The attacks involved using cheap radio hardware to intercept signals from key fobs and clone them, enabling unauthorized access to the vehicles. The vulnerabilities were exploited by reverse-engineering components inside the vehicles to extract cryptographic key values shared among millions of cars, allowing thieves to create clones of the key fobs and gain access to the vehicles without the owners' knowledge [47051, 70040, 46973]. The incidents highlighted serious security flaws in the keyless entry systems of various car models, raising concerns about the ease with which thieves could exploit these vulnerabilities to gain unauthorized access to vehicles. The attacks demonstrated the potential risks associated with relying on outdated security mechanisms in modern vehicles, emphasizing the need for enhanced security measures to protect against such malicious exploits [47051, 70040, 46973]. (b) The software failure incident is non-malicious in the sense that it was not caused by unintentional errors or faults in the software itself. Instead, the vulnerabilities exploited by the researchers were inherent in the design and implementation of the keyless entry systems used in the vehicles. The flaws allowed for unauthorized access to the vehicles but did not involve accidental software bugs or defects that led to the security breaches [47051, 70040, 46973]. |
| Intent (Poor/Accidental Decisions) | poor_decisions | (a) The intent of the software failure incident related to poor_decisions: - The software failure incidents related to the Volkswagen security flaws, where researchers were able to hack into millions of Volkswagen vehicles, were due to poor decisions made by Volkswagen in implementing their security systems [47051, 70040, 46973]. - Volkswagen left vulnerabilities in both the ignition and keyless entry systems of their vehicles, affecting practically every car they sold since 1995 [46973]. - The researchers found that Volkswagen shared a single cryptographic key value among millions of vehicles, making it easy for thieves to clone key fobs and access the cars [46973]. - Despite being aware of the vulnerabilities, Volkswagen delayed the publication of the research and did not take adequate measures to address the security flaws [46973]. - The incidents highlight poor decisions made by car manufacturers in prioritizing convenience over security, leading to an increase in car thefts through hacking methods [70040]. (b) The intent of the software failure incident related to accidental_decisions: - The software failure incidents related to the car thefts through hacking methods were not accidental but rather intentional actions taken by criminals exploiting security vulnerabilities in keyless entry systems [70040]. - Criminals were able to hack into keyless cars using tools available on the open market, indicating deliberate actions to steal vehicles [70040]. - The vulnerabilities in keyless entry systems were not accidental but a result of design flaws and lack of adequate security measures implemented by car manufacturers [46973]. - The incidents were not accidental decisions but deliberate actions taken by thieves to exploit weaknesses in the software systems of modern vehicles [46973]. |
| Capability (Incompetence/Accidental) | development_incompetence, accidental | (a) The software failure incident occurring due to development incompetence: - The incident involving Volkswagen's keyless entry system vulnerability was due to development incompetence as researchers found flaws in the keyless entry system that unlocks the vehicle's doors, affecting practically every car Volkswagen has sold since 1995 [46973]. - Volkswagen faced a lawsuit that delayed the publication of research revealing vulnerabilities in their vehicles for two years, indicating a lack of professional competence in addressing security flaws [46973]. - The researchers discovered a vulnerability in Volkswagen models that allowed them to start the ignition and drive off without a key, highlighting a lack of security measures in the development process [46973]. (b) The software failure incident occurring accidentally: - The incident involving car makers failing to warn drivers of security flaws, leading to car thefts, can be seen as an accidental failure as millions of drivers were left unaware of the risks associated with keyless entry systems [70040]. - BMW admitted that keyless cars can be hacked into by criminals using tools available on the open market, indicating an accidental introduction of vulnerabilities that can be exploited by thieves [70040]. - The vulnerabilities in keyless entry systems, such as relay attacks and cloning key fobs, were not intentionally introduced but were exploited by criminals due to the lack of proper security measures [70040]. |
| Duration | permanent | (a) The software failure incident described in the articles is more of a permanent nature. The vulnerabilities and flaws in the keyless entry systems of various car manufacturers, particularly Volkswagen, have been ongoing for years. Researchers have discovered multiple vulnerabilities that affect millions of vehicles, including those sold by Volkswagen, since as far back as 1995 [47051, 70040, 46973]. These vulnerabilities allow resourceful thieves to wirelessly unlock vehicles, clone key fobs, and potentially steal cars. The flaws in the systems have persisted over time, with car makers being accused of not doing enough to address the security risks and failing to warn drivers adequately. The incidents of car theft using hacking techniques have been ongoing, indicating a long-standing issue with the security of keyless entry systems in vehicles. |
| Behaviour | omission, value | (a) crash: The articles do not mention any instances of a system crash where the software fails due to losing state and not performing any of its intended functions. (b) omission: The articles discuss instances where car makers like Volkswagen and BMW failed to warn drivers of major security flaws in their keyless entry systems, leaving millions of drivers unaware of the risks associated with their vehicles being vulnerable to hacking and theft [Article 70040]. (c) timing: There is no mention of a timing-related failure where the system performs its intended functions correctly but at the wrong time. (d) value: The articles highlight failures related to the system performing its intended functions incorrectly, such as vulnerabilities in keyless entry systems that allow hackers to intercept signals and clone key fobs to gain unauthorized access to vehicles [Article 47051, Article 70040, Article 46973]. (e) byzantine: The articles do not describe any instances of a byzantine failure where the system behaves erroneously with inconsistent responses and interactions. (f) other: The other behavior described in the articles is related to security vulnerabilities in keyless entry systems that allow for unauthorized access to vehicles, leading to theft or potential security breaches [Article 47051, Article 70040, Article 46973]. |
| Layer | Option | Rationale |
|---|---|---|
| Perception | sensor, actuator, processing_unit, network_communication, embedded_software | (a) sensor: Failure due to contributing factors introduced by sensor error - The failure in the articles is related to the keyless entry system of vehicles, which involves the use of sensors in the key fobs to communicate with the vehicle's system [70040, 46973]. (b) actuator: Failure due to contributing factors introduced by actuator error - The keyless entry system vulnerability allowed thieves to wirelessly unlock vehicles, indicating a failure in the actuator component that controls the locking and unlocking of the car doors [46973]. (c) processing_unit: Failure due to contributing factors introduced by processing error - The vulnerability exploited by hackers involved intercepting signals from the key fobs and cloning them to gain access to the vehicles, indicating a failure in the processing unit that handles the authentication and communication process [46973]. (d) network_communication: Failure due to contributing factors introduced by network communication error - The hack involved intercepting signals from the key fobs wirelessly, suggesting a failure in the network communication between the key fob and the vehicle's system [46973]. (e) embedded_software: Failure due to contributing factors introduced by embedded software error - The vulnerability exploited by hackers was related to flaws in the keyless entry system's cryptographic scheme, indicating a failure in the embedded software that manages the security protocols of the system [46973]. |
| Communication | link_level, connectivity_level | [a47051, a70040, a46973] The software failure incidents reported in the articles are related to the communication layer of the cyber-physical system that failed. The failures were due to contributing factors introduced by both the wired and wireless physical layer (link_level) and the network or transport layer (connectivity_level). In the incidents described in the articles, researchers were able to intercept signals from key fobs using radio hardware to clone the key and gain access to vehicles. This interception of signals and cloning of keys involved vulnerabilities in the keyless entry systems of various car manufacturers, including Volkswagen, BMW, and others. The attacks exploited flaws in the communication between the key fob and the vehicle, allowing unauthorized access to the vehicles. Additionally, the vulnerabilities discovered by the researchers affected millions of vehicles sold over the past two decades, highlighting weaknesses in the communication protocols and security mechanisms at both the physical and network layers of the cyber-physical systems in the vehicles. |
| Application | TRUE | The software failure incidents described in the articles are related to the application layer of the cyber physical system. Researchers from the University of Birmingham and a German engineering firm discovered vulnerabilities in the keyless entry systems of millions of vehicles, including those from Volkswagen, Audi, and other automakers. The attacks involved intercepting signals from key fobs and cloning them to unlock the vehicles, which could be done using cheap radio hardware and software-defined radios connected to laptops or Arduino boards [47051, 70040, 46973]. These vulnerabilities allowed unauthorized access to the vehicles without stealing them, highlighting flaws in the security of the application layer of the cyber physical systems. |
| Category | Option | Rationale |
|---|---|---|
| Consequence | property, non-human, theoretical_consequence | (a) death: People lost their lives due to the software failure - No information about people losing their lives due to the software failure was mentioned in the articles. (b) harm: People were physically harmed due to the software failure - No information about people being physically harmed due to the software failure was mentioned in the articles. (c) basic: People's access to food or shelter was impacted because of the software failure - No information about people's access to food or shelter being impacted due to the software failure was mentioned in the articles. (d) property: People's material goods, money, or data was impacted due to the software failure - The software failure incidents described in the articles primarily focused on the security vulnerabilities in keyless entry systems of vehicles, leading to the potential theft of cars. This could result in property loss for the vehicle owners [47051, 70040, 46973]. (e) delay: People had to postpone an activity due to the software failure - No information about people having to postpone an activity due to the software failure was mentioned in the articles. (f) non-human: Non-human entities were impacted due to the software failure - The software failure incidents discussed in the articles primarily affected vehicles and their security systems, which are non-human entities [47051, 70040, 46973]. (g) no_consequence: There were no real observed consequences of the software failure - The software failure incidents described in the articles had real observed consequences related to the security vulnerabilities in keyless entry systems of vehicles, potentially leading to theft [47051, 70040, 46973]. (h) theoretical_consequence: There were potential consequences discussed of the software failure that did not occur - The articles discussed potential consequences of the software failures, such as the risk of theft due to security vulnerabilities in keyless entry systems, which were actualized in some cases [47051, 70040, 46973]. (i) other: Was there consequence(s) of the software failure not described in the (a to h) options? What is the other consequence(s)? - There were no other consequences of the software failure mentioned in the articles. |
| Domain | transportation, finance | (a) The failed system was related to the transportation industry, specifically affecting car manufacturers like Volkswagen, BMW, and Jaguar Land Rover. The software failure incidents involved security flaws in keyless entry systems that allowed thieves to hack into cars and steal them [47051, 70040, 46973]. (b) The transportation industry was impacted by the software failure incidents as organized gangs used cheap devices to hack electronic entry systems and steal thousands of cars, leading to concerns about the security of vehicles [70040]. (h) The finance industry could also be indirectly affected by the software failure incidents in the transportation sector, as stolen vehicles could result in financial losses for car owners, insurance companies, and potentially impact the overall economy [70040]. (m) The software failure incidents were not directly related to any other industry mentioned in the options provided. |
Article ID: 47051
Article ID: 70040
Article ID: 46973